Belshazzar

Belshazzar’s Feast, Rembrandt, 1636

Belshazzar (also spelled Balthazar; Hebrew: בֵּלְשַׁאצַּר; reigned c. 550–539 BC) was the last king of Babylon during the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He was the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar II (Hebrew: נְבוּכַדְנֶאצַּר) and the eldest son of Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 BC. Until the mid-nineteenth century, Belshazzar was known only from the book of Daniel and was absent from Babylonian historical records, leading some scholars to question the Bible’s historical reliability. This view changed with the discovery of Babylonian inscriptions bearing his name in 1854 and 1879, which confirmed his historical existence.

Historical Background

In 586 BC, Nebuchadnezzar conquered the Kingdom of Judah, destroyed Jerusalem, plundered the treasures of the temple, and deported members of the royal family and nobility to Babylon. Daniel was among those taken into captivity. Under Nebuchadnezzar’s rule, the Babylonian Empire reached its height. He carried out extensive reconstruction projects throughout Babylon, and the city became renowned for its splendor, often described as paradise-like.

Following Nebuchadnezzar’s death, Babylon’s power declined rapidly. In 539 BC, during Belshazzar’s reign, the empire fell to Cyrus II of Persia, also known as Cyrus the Great, bringing an end to Babylonian rule.

Belshazzar in the Bible

Daniel 5 recounts the banquet Belshazzar held on the night before Babylon’s fall.

He gathered a thousand nobles and drank wine from the gold and silver vessels taken from the temple in Jerusalem, praising idols as he did so. In the midst of the revelry, a mysterious hand appeared and wrote words on the wall. Alarmed, Belshazzar summoned enchanters, astrologers, and diviners, but none could interpret the writing.

Daniel was then brought before Belshazzar. He explained that this happened because Belshazzar, although he knew about the former king Nebuchadnezzar who had once been deposed for his arrogance before God, exalted himself, used the vessels from God’s temple as drinking cups, praised idols, and failed to give glory to God.

He then read and interpreted the writing on the wall, which appeared as “MENE MENE TEKEL UPARSIN” (מְנֵ֖א מְנֵ֥א תְּקֵ֥ל וּפַרְסִֽין). According to Daniel’s interpretation:

Mene (מְנֵ֖א) – God has numbered the days of your kingdom and brought it to an end.

Tekel (תְּקֵ֥ל) – You have been weighed on the scales and found wanting.

Peres (פַרְסִֽין) – Your kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians.

Belshazzar ordered that Daniel be rewarded and proclaimed him the third highest ruler in the kingdom. That same night, Babylon was captured by Cyrus II of Persia (Cyrus the Great), and Belshazzar was killed.

Evidence of Belshazzar’s Existence

Until the mid-nineteenth century, Belshazzar was regarded as an unverified figure. Outside the book of Daniel, no Babylonian sources mentioned him, and Nabonidus was considered the last historically attested king of Babylon. This absence led some scholars to conclude that the biblical account of Belshazzar was fictional. That view changed, however, with archaeological discoveries in the Babylonian region.

Nabonidus Cylinder

In 1854, archaeologists excavating the ruins of a temple at Ur in ancient Babylon uncovered four clay cylinders, now known collectively as the Nabonidus Cylinders. These cylinders contain closely similar inscriptions with a remarkable historical record: Nabonidus, recognized as the last king of Babylon, recorded the name of his eldest son, Belshazzar. The name Bel-shar-usur represents the original Akkadian form of Belshazzar. One translated passage from the inscription reads:

“	As for me, Nabonidus, king of Babylon, may I not sin against your great divinity. Grant me long life. And as for Belshazzar, my firstborn son, instill reverence for your great divinity in his heart, so that he may not commit sin.	“
— Part of the inscription on the Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur

The Nabonidus Cylinder constitutes the earliest known extrabiblical source to mention Belshazzar by name, who had previously been absent from Babylonian historical records. By identifying Belshazzar as his firstborn son, Nabonidus provided decisive evidence that Belshazzar was not solely a figure of the biblical narrative but a historical individual.

Nabonidus Cylinders Discovered at Ur (2 of 4)

Name	Photo	Holding Institution	Year and Place of Discovery	Content
Nabonidus Cylinders		British Museum, London	1854, Ur	Records Belshazzar as the firstborn son of Nabonidus

Nabonidus Chronicle

More than twenty years later, another important inscription was identified: the Nabonidus Chronicle. Acquired by the British Museum in 1879 through an antiquities dealer, this tablet records major events from the reign of Nabonidus, including the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus.

The chronicle states that Nabonidus was absent from Babylon for approximately ten years near the end of his reign. From his seventh to sixteenth regnal years, he resided in the Arabian desert city of Tema (also rendered Tayma). During this period, Nabonidus delegated authority in Babylon to his eldest son, Belshazzar, known in Akkadian as Bel-shar-usur, who commanded the army and supervised the royal court. This record indicates that while Nabonidus remained in Tema, far from the capital, Belshazzar exercised de facto royal authority in Babylon, explaining why the book of Daniel refers to him as king.

Nabonidus Chronicle

Name	Photo	Holding Institution	Year and Place of Discovery	Content
Nabonidus Chronicle		British Museum, London	1879, acquired by the British Museum from an antiquities dealer	Records that Belshazzar governed Babylon during Nabonidus’s stay in Tema, and that Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon

The discoveries of the Nabonidus Cylinder and the Nabonidus Chronicle affirmed that the Bible preserves a more precise historical record than any other ancient source. In 1854, the British magazine The Athenaeum reported on the Nabonidus Cylinder unearthed at Ur, drawing particular attention to the appearance of Belshazzar’s name and emphasizing the inscription’s exceptional historical significance and scholarly value.

The Athenaeum, March 1854, p. 341

“	The most important fact, however, which they disclose, is, that the eldest son of Nabonidus was named Bel-shar-ezar (c), and that he was admitted by his father to a share in the government. This name is undoubtedly the Belshazzar (בֵּלְשַׁאצַּר) of Daniel, and thus furnishes us with a key to the explanation of that great historical problem which has hitherto defied solution. We can now understand how Belshazzar, as joint king with his father, may have been Governor of Babylon, when the city was attacked by the combined forces of the Medes and Persians, and may have perished in the assault which followed ; while Nabonidus, leading a force to the relief of the place, was defeated, and obliged to take refuge in the neighbouring town of Borsippa (or Birs-i-Nimrud), capitulating, after a short resistance, and being subsequently assigned, according to Berosus, an honourable retirement in Carmania. By the discovery, indeed, of the name of Bel-shar-ezar, as appertaining to the son of Nabonidus, we are, for the first time, enabled to reconcile authentic history (such as it is related by Herodotus and Berosus, and not as we find it in the romance of Xenophon or the fables of Ctesias), with the inspired record of Daniel, which forms one of the bulwarks of our religion.	“
— The Athenæum, J. Francis, March 1854, p. 341

The Nabonidus Cylinder and the Nabonidus Chronicle not only confirmed Belshazzar’s historical existence but also resolved a long-standing interpretive question. In Daniel 5, King Belshazzar promised Daniel, “If you can read this writing and tell me what it means, you will be made the third highest ruler in the kingdom”—a promise he later fulfilled. For centuries, this wording puzzled biblical scholars. If Belshazzar was the king, it would seem more logical for Daniel to be appointed the second highest ruler rather than the third.

The king [Belshazzar] . . . said . . . “Whoever reads this writing and tells me what it means will be clothed in purple and have a gold chain placed around his neck, and he will be made the third highest ruler in the kingdom.” . . . “. . . Now I have heard that you are able to give interpretations and to solve difficult problems. If you can read this writing and tell me what it means, you will be clothed in purple and have a gold chain placed around your neck, and you will be made the third highest ruler in the kingdom.” . . . Then at Belshazzar’s command, Daniel was clothed in purple, a gold chain was placed around his neck, and he was proclaimed the third highest ruler in the kingdom. That very night Belshazzar, king of the Babylonians, was slain, and Darius the Mede took over the kingdom.

Daniel 5:7–31

This issue was clarified through the discovery of the Nabonidus Chronicle. Nabonidus, as the reigning king, held the position of first ruler, while Belshazzar, serving as co-regent, occupied the second. Consequently, Belshazzar could offer Daniel only the rank of third ruler in the kingdom. This explanation further affirms that the account preserved in the book of Daniel reflects a historically trustworthy record.

See also

• Book of Daniel
• Nebuchadnezzar
• Babylon