The Persecution of Christians in Rome
Roman persecution of Christians began during the reign of Nero, the fifth emperor of Rome, and continued for about 250 years until Emperor Constantine officially recognized Christianity with the Edict of Milan in AD 313. In the early days of the apostles, persecution came primarily from the Jews, who did not accept Jesus as the Christ. At that time, there was no persecution from Rome. Roman persecution began later, as Christianity spread beyond Jerusalem into Asia Minor and Europe. Initially, persecution was not an official imperial policy; it occurred sporadically in certain regions, and there were even periods of relative peace. However, this changed in AD 250 when Emperor Decius initiated the first empire-wide persecution of Christians, requiring all citizens to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods.
Despite the threat of imprisonment, torture, and death, Christians continued to preach the gospel with unwavering courage. Their fearless faith, even in the face of martyrdom, deeply moved many, leading to a growing number of converts. As a result, Christianity rapidly spread throughout the Roman Empire and along the entire Mediterranean coast.
Background
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The persecution of Christians in Rome was largely driven by political motives. Initially, the Roman Empire maintained a relatively tolerant policy toward the politics and religions of conquered peoples. As long as a province remained loyal to Rome, local rulers and royal families were allowed to retain their authority, and the empire generally refrained from interfering in religious practices. Moreover, because Rome valued legal order, capital punishment was typically reserved for crimes deemed especially serious. Despite this, Christians were harshly criticized—and in many cases, executed—solely for their faith. This was because Christianity, which was fundamentally different from the Roman state religion, was perceived by those in power as a political threat. Its refusal to participate in emperor worship and its exclusive allegiance to one God challenged the unity and authority of the Roman state.
Roman Polytheism
When Christianity began to spread, the Roman Empire was home to a wide variety of religions brought in from different parts of the world. Temples and statues dedicated to gods such as Isis, the mother goddess of Egypt; Mithras, the sun god of ancient Persia; and Greek deities like Jupiter (Zeus), Mercury (Hermes), and Minerva (Athena) were built throughout the empire. In fact, the book of Acts in the New Testament records that in Athens, there was even an altar inscribed: “To an unknown god.”[1]
Romans believed that the more gods they worshiped, the more blessings they would receive, and that the peace of the empire was maintained through faithful sacrifices to these gods. In other words, they feared that neglecting these religious ceremonies would bring disaster upon the empire.
In the Roman Empire, a legal religion was one that took part in sacrifices to the Roman gods. Any religion that refused to do so was considered illegal. Christianity, however, rejected such sacrifices. Christians worshiped only their God and refused to participate in rituals for other gods.
From the Roman point of view, the Christians’ refusal to worship the Roman gods was a violation of civic duty and a threat to the peace and prosperity of the empire. As a result, Christianity became the object of suspicion, hostility, and ultimately, persecution.
Emperor Worship in Rome
The primary reason Christians were persecuted in Rome was their refusal to participate in emperor worship. When the Romans conquered Greece in the mid-2nd century BC, they adopted the Greek concept of ruler deification.[2] Beginning with Julius Caesar—who was deified after his death—the Roman Senate would declare deceased emperors to be gods, provided they had not ruled as tyrants. Temples were erected in their honor, and sacrifices were offered to them. Emperor worship was not merely a religious ritual; it served as a powerful political tool to promote loyalty to the empire and unify its diverse territories.[3]
In some cases, people were even compelled to worship the living emperor. Tyrannical rulers such as the third emperor, Caligula (reigned 37–41), the fifth emperor, Nero (reigned 54–68), and the eleventh emperor, Domitian (reigned 81–96), proclaimed themselves gods during their lifetimes and used this status to justify their oppressive rule. Whether the emperor was living or dead, Christians consistently refused to participate in emperor worship, as their faith taught them to worship God alone. To the Roman state, this rejection was seen not only as religious nonconformity but as a serious act of disloyalty and treason against the empire.
Misunderstandings About Christianity
An Anti-Social Group
Unfounded misunderstandings and public suspicion toward Christianity also contributed to the Roman persecution of Christians. Since Christianity was not recognized as a legal religion by the Roman Empire, Christians were not permitted to build official places of worship. Instead, they met in private homes, which aroused suspicion and fueled wild rumors among the Romans.[4] Many misunderstood the Christian practice of the Holy Supper, falsely believing it to involve the consumption of human flesh. The Christians’ habit of calling one another “brother” and “sister” was also misinterpreted, leading to baseless accusations of immoral behavior, including promiscuity and incest.[5]
The Christian lifestyle differed from Roman norms not only in religious practice but also in social behavior. Christians refrained from attending theaters and gladiator games, and they avoided entering military service or public office. This was because theaters were closely tied to festivals honoring Roman gods and emperors, and gladiatorial combat was seen as unethical. Christians also avoided military and governmental roles because such positions required pledging loyalty to the deified Roman emperors and participating in idolatrous rituals. As a result, Romans regarded Christians as “un-Roman” and labeled them an anti-social and even dangerous group—further deepening their isolation and persecution.
Superstition
To the Romans, religion primarily meant offering sacrifices to the gods and praying for tangible, earthly blessings. In contrast, Christianity had no traditional rituals like sacrifices and instead emphasized life after death. To Romans accustomed to religions centered on present-day prosperity, Christianity appeared unrealistic, little more than a superstitious belief.
Moreover, the Roman Empire had laws against reciting incomprehensible incantations, based on the Cornelian Law enacted in 82 BC. Although originally intended to prevent poisonings, this law gradually expanded to prohibit harmful curses spoken against others.[6] Christians’ songs of praise were often misunderstood as strange magical chants under this framework.
Roman philosophers and historians frequently criticized Christianity, describing it as a “dangerous superstition” or a “new and evil superstition.” The Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus wrote that Christians were hated and persecuted because of their “evil practices and hatred for mankind.” Similarly, the Roman writer Gaius Suetonius referred to Christians as those “devoted to a wicked and harmful superstition” and justified their persecution on these grounds.[7] Yet despite these accusations and opposition, Christianity spread rapidly across the Roman Empire and came to pose a serious threat to the traditional Roman religions.
The Difference Between Judaism and Christianity
Until around AD 60, the Romans were unable to distinguish between Jews and Christians. In the early days of the church, most Christians were Jewish, and both groups shared the same Scriptures—the Old Testament. Furthermore, both Jews and Christians rejected Roman polytheism, so to the Roman authorities, Christianity initially appeared to be merely a sect of Judaism. Although Rome often suppressed Judaism, it acknowledged it as an ancient, ancestral religion. As a result, Jews were exempt from participating in idolatrous Roman ceremonies, provided they paid a special tax, and were permitted to continue practicing their traditional faith.
However, after the 60s AD, the Romans began to recognize Christianity as a distinct religion. Unlike the Jews, who generally did not seek to convert outsiders—believing themselves to be God’s chosen people—Christians actively spread the gospel to everyone, including non-Jews, throughout the Roman Empire. Christianity, which was neither a state religion nor rooted in a long-established tradition, came to be seen as a threat to the traditional religion of Rome.[8]
Ten Great Roman Persecutions of Christians
The Roman persecutions of Christians varied in cause and method, depending on the emperor and the circumstances of the time. Among these, the ten major persecutions that occurred under ten different emperors are the most well-known. Interestingly, many of these persecutions were not directly initiated by the emperor or the state, but were instead driven by the prevailing social climate and accusations made by ordinary citizens. Christianity was officially declared an illegal religion during the reign of Emperor Trajan. Later, under Emperor Decius, persecution—previously sporadic and localized—was enforced across the entire Roman Empire.
| Roman Emperor | Period of Persecution | Content |
| Nero | 64–68 | ·Blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome.
·Had them thrown to wild animals or burned alive as human torches to light outdoor parties. |
| Domitian | 90–96 | ·Strengthened worship of Roman gods
·Persecuted Christians who refused to pay the Jewish tax offered to the god Jupiter ·Exiled Apostle John to the island of Patmos |
| Trajan | 98–117 | ·Declared Christianity an illegal and harmful religion
·Ignatius, the Bishop of the Church of Antioch, was martyred |
| Hadrian | 117–138 | ·Forced worship of the emperor and Roman gods |
| Marcus Aurelius | 161–180 | ·Considered Christianity a “superstition” and despised it
·Ordered execution for those who refused to abandon their faith ·In 177, 48 Christians were martyred in the Lyon persecution |
| Septimius Severus | 202–211 | ·Forced to worship the sun god
·Banned conversion to Christianity |
| Maximinus Thrax | 235–236 | ·Harshly persecuted Christians under the accusation that the previous emperor had supported them
·Targeted and executed Christian leaders |
| Decius | 249–251 | ·Led the first empire-wide persecution
·All citizens were ordered to sacrifice to the Roman gods, and those who disobeyed were executed ·Tried to wipe out Christianity by pressuring believers to abandon their faith |
| Valerian | 257–260 | ·Prohibition of Christian gatherings
·Seized Christian property and land ·Exile and Execution of Christian leaders |
| Diocletian | 303–311 | ·Proclamation of four harsh edicts persecuting Christians
① Destroyed church buildings, burned Bibles, seized sacred offerings ② Arrested all Christian leaders ③ Released the leaders who offered sacrifices to Roman gods, punished those who refused ④ Executed Christians of all ages and genders in public places ·Stripped all Christians of citizenship rights ·Expelled from public office ·Forced Christian soldiers to renounce their faith—executing those who disobeyed ※ Although the official persecution orders were withdrawn in AD 311, Christian persecution in Rome continued until the Edict of Milan in AD 313, which granted religious freedom |
Nero
The persecution of Christians in Rome was sparked by the Great Fire of Rome. On the night of July 18, AD 64, a small fire broke out in a Roman oil store and quickly spread throughout the city. The fire raged for over a week, leaving two-thirds of Rome in ruins. Nero (reigned 54–68), who was vacationing in Antium (modern-day Anzio), returned to Rome immediately upon hearing the news and took measures to save lives. He even opened his private gardens to shelter victims of the fire. Despite his efforts, a rumor spread that Nero had started the fire himself and watched as the city burned, singing and playing his lyre. The fact that Nero quickly began constructing the lavish Domus Aurea (“Golden House”) on the site of the destroyed palace only intensified public suspicion, and many began to accept the rumor as truth.
To divert blame and appease public outrage, Nero scapegoated the Christians. While anti-Jewish sentiment was widespread among the Romans, anti-Roman sentiment among the Jews had also reached its peak, making it politically risky to accuse the Jews of arson. In contrast, Christianity was a small, unpopular sect, distrusted by both Jews and Romans. Exploiting this vulnerability, Nero initiated the Roman policy of Christian persecution.
At the time, arson was punished by death—often by being burned alive. Slaves and prisoners faced brutal executions such as crucifixion or being thrown to wild animals. Many Christians accused of starting the fire were from the lower classes. They were thrown to starving beasts while wearing the skins of animals, or tied to oil-soaked wooden posts or bundles of hay and burned to death as “human torches.”
The persecution under Nero lasted until his death in AD 68.[9] It is believed that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred during this time. However, the persecution remained confined to the city of Rome and was not extended to the provinces or enforced by regional governors.[10]
Domitian
Imperator Caesar Augustus Domitianus (reigned 81–96), known for his reign of terror, began persecuting Christians in AD 90s. To strengthen his absolute authority, he restored temples and reinforced the worship of traditional Roman gods, claiming himself to be a living god and the divine protector of Roman religion.
Judaism, however, was officially recognized as a legal religion and thus exempt from emperor worship, provided that Jews paid the Jewish tax. Originally imposed only on Jews living in Judea, Domitian expanded this tax to include all Jews throughout the Roman Empire as a source of revenue. Because of this legal status, both Jews and Christians were initially able to avoid participating in idolatrous ceremonies by paying the tax. However, the Jewish tax was eventually declared to be paid in honor of the Roman god Jupiter. Christians, who worshiped only God, refused to pay it. By refusing to worship the emperor and the Roman gods—and even rejecting their duty to pay taxes—Christians inevitably came to be regarded as a rebellious group. This contributed to renewed persecution of Christians not seen since the time of Nero.[11]
It was during Domitian’s persecution that Apostle John was exiled to the island of Patmos. There, he received a divine revelation and wrote the book of Revelation.
Trajan
Trajan (Caesar Divi Nervae Filius Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus, reigned 98–117) was the first Roman emperor to come from a province and is remembered as one of the Five Good Emperors.[12] Though he had a strong political reputation, his reign left a stain due to his treatment of Christians. Trajan regarded Christianity as a threat to the Roman state, and for that reason, Christianity was deemed an illegal religion. He ordered that anyone who openly professed the Christian faith should be executed. According to tradition, Ignatius, the bishop of Antioch (modern-day Antakya), was brought to Rome during Trajan’s reign and martyred there.
Although some Christians were put to death, Trajan’s persecution was not extensive. In his correspondence, Trajan advised that Christians should not be hunted down or punished without clear evidence. He also instructed that anonymous accusations should not be accepted, and that only those who openly refused to renounce their faith after being given a chance should be punished.[13]
Hadrian
Publius Aelius Hadrianus (reigned 117–138) did not take the lead in persecuting Christians in Rome, but only recommended that Christians be punished on solid grounds, just as Trajan had done. However, refusing to worship Roman gods and emperors was a felony in Roman society, so Christians continued to be persecuted by the provincial governors and the Romans.
Marcus Aurelius
Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (reigned 161–180), known as the philosopher emperor, was a ruler who symbolized the golden age of the Roman Empire. While devoted to the Roman gods, he viewed Christianity as a dangerous superstition and held it in contempt.[14] Although there is no evidence that he personally initiated persecution, Christians were martyred under his reign, often as a result of public accusations and local enforcement of imperial law. During this period, persecutions intensified, and the number of Christian deaths increased, particularly in places like Lyon in AD 177.[15]
- Persecution in Lyon, 177
The most well-known persecution during the reign of Marcus Aurelius was the persecution of Christians in Lyon in AD 177. It began in the Roman province of Gaul and spread to the cities of Vienne and Lyon in the Rhône Valley. While not officially ordered by the imperial government, local officials allowed the violence to unfold. With the tacit approval of the authorities, angry mobs attacked Christians and dragged them to prison. British historian Tom Holland vividly described the chaos, likening the mobs to gangsters who roamed the streets and hunted down Christians.[16] Despite severe threats and torture, many Christians refused to renounce their faith. They were thrown to wild beasts in public arenas or subjected to brutal executions. One of the most famous martyrs from this event was Blandina, a young slave girl who endured extreme torture but remained steadfast. According to the records of the Jewish historian Josephus, 48 Christians were executed during that time.
Septimius Severus
Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax (reigned 193–211) was initially tolerant toward Christians and reportedly viewed them as “good, quiet, and industrious citizens.” However, as the Roman Empire faced internal instability—including threats of rebellion and civil war—Severus sought to unify the empire through religious syncretism. He promoted the worship of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun) and encouraged all subjects to recognize the sun as the supreme deity. When Judaism and Christianity resisted this movement, persecution followed. In AD 202, Severus issued an edict prohibiting conversions to Judaism or Christianity. Those who attempted to convert were even executed in public arenas such as amphitheaters.[9] The persecution under Severus was not empire-wide but was concentrated mainly in Alexandria and the regions of the North.
Maximinus Thrax
After the reign of Septimius Severus, the persecution of Christians in Rome continued sporadically in certain regions. However, for the most part, Christianity experienced relative peace due to the generally tolerant attitudes of the emperors. This period of stability ended during the short reign of Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus Thrax (reigned 235–238).
Maximinus held deep resentment toward his predecessor, Severus Alexander (reigned 222–235), as well as toward the Roman Senate and aristocratic families, due in part to his lower social background and rise through the military. Maximinus ordered the persecution of Christians because Severus Alexander had been favorable toward them. As a result of his persecution, many Christian leaders were sent into exile.[17]
Decius
Gaius Messius Quintus Decius (reigned 249–251) was the first Roman emperor to initiate a systematic, empire-wide persecution of Christians. At the time of his accession, the Roman Empire was in a state of crisis—facing foreign invasions, economic instability, and widespread epidemics. Decius believed these calamities were a sign of divine anger from the traditional Roman gods. In response, he promoted the idea of religious unity, declaring that the empire should be bound together under one religion. In January AD 250, Decius issued an imperial edict requiring all citizens to perform a public sacrifice to the Roman gods in the presence of magistrates. Those who complied received a certificate of sacrifice called a libellus. Anyone who could not present such a certificate was considered a criminal and subject to arrest.[19]
Christians who refused to obey the decree were arrested, as they would not offer sacrifices to pagan gods. Decius’s objective, however, was not to create martyrs but to produce apostates. He sought to restore the traditional Roman religion by pressuring Christians through intimidation, torture, and persuasion. As a result, some renounced their faith, but many others chose to remain steadfast and were martyred. During this persecution, prominent church leaders—including the bishops of Rome, Jerusalem, and Antioch—were killed.
Even in Rome, public sympathy for the persecuted Christians and admiration for the martyrs began to grow, ultimately strengthening the Christian movement. The harsh persecution came to an end in early 251, just a few months before Decius’s death.
Valerian
Publius Licinius Valerianus (reigned 253–260) was initially favorable toward Christians, but later reversed his position and intensified the persecution policy begun under Decius. In AD 257, Valerian issued an edict forbidding Christian gatherings and assemblies. The following year, in 258, he enacted a second edict that formalized the penalties for Christians who refused to abandon their faith. Under this decree, Christian leaders who refused to perform sacrifices to the Roman gods were executed or exiled, and their property was confiscated. Among the most notable martyrs during this period were Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, and Sixtus II, bishop of Rome—both of whom were put to death.
Diocletian
As the persecution of Christians in Rome subsided toward the end of the third century, the number of Christians steadily increased. Members of the Roman middle class began joining the church, and even some nobles were influenced by Christian teachings. However, the last and most severe persecution of Christians occurred in the early fourth century, beginning in AD 303 under the orders of Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (reigned 284–305).
The reasons Diocletian abruptly launched a persecution near the end of his reign remain unclear, but several contributing factors appear likely. These include the influence of his co-emperor Galerius, a staunch supporter of traditional Roman religion; a desire to enforce religious unity across the empire; and fears that Christianity was undermining the imperial cult, especially within the military. Beginning in AD 285, Diocletian elevated Jupiter as the supreme deity of the Roman pantheon and even adopted the title “Jovius,” claiming to be the earthly representative of Jupiter. He inscribed the phrase “Dominus et Deus” (“Lord and God”) on official inscriptions, reflecting his pursuit of a semi-theocratic imperial identity.[20]
Monotheistic Christianity posed a clear challenge to this political-religious vision. Beginning in AD 303, Diocletian issued a series of four edicts aimed at dismantling Christianity. These edicts included the destruction of Christian churches, the confiscation of sacred texts such as the Bible, the dismissal of Christians from government and military positions, and the loss of civil rights for those who refused to recant. Church leaders were arrested, exiled, or executed. Christians who refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods were tortured and put to death. When a fire broke out in the imperial palace, blame was cast on the Christians, and many were arrested for treason. Although the edicts were eventually rescinded in AD 311 under Galerius, persecution continued in some regions. Yet despite the imperial effort to eradicate it, Christianity not only survived—it grew stronger. The faith of believers burned even more brightly amid suffering.
It is said that thousands of Christians were martyred during the persecution under Emperor Diocletian. According to Eusebius in his Church History, “there was no room for the confinement of sinners convicted of the charge of practicing Christianity.”[21][22] Due to the intense pressure and brutality of the persecution, many Christians apostatized. Those who fell away from the faith handed over their copies of the Scriptures to Roman officials. From this act, the Latin verb trado,[23] meaning “to hand over,” gave rise to the term “traditor.”
Acknowledgment of Christianity
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire came to an end with Emperor Constantine I’s policy of embracing Christianity. Constantine formally acknowledged Christianity through the Edict of Milan in AD 313. Just as earlier emperors had persecuted Christianity for political reasons, Constantine tolerated—and even favored—it for similar political purposes. Following this shift, Christianity expanded rapidly, gaining influence and visibility across the empire. However, this newfound favor also brought challenges as the spirit of truth and faith was increasingly compromised by secularization. Later, in AD 392, Theodosius the Great (reigned 379–395) took a decisive step by declaring Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.
See also
External links
External links
- Julien Ries, Christianity, translated by Lee Jong-in, Dong-A Ilbo, 2004.
- F.F. Bruce, The History of the Early Church, translated by Seo Young-il, Christian Literature Society, 2009.
- Jeong Ki-mun, Why Did the Roman Empire Persecute Christianity?, Jaumgwa Moeum, 2010.
- Lee Sang-gyu, Early Christianity and Roman Society, SFC, 2016.
References
- ↑ "Acts 17:22-23".
- ↑ The decline and fall of the roman empire, Edward Gibbon, Penguin Books, 1985
- ↑ Cult of the emperors, Britannica
- ↑ Christian History: An Introduction, Alister E. McGrath, Wiley, 2013
- ↑ Ancient Rome, Thomas R. Martin, Yale University Press, 2012
- ↑ Choe Hwasun, (2016), A Preliminary Study on the Concept of Magic and Religion in Ancient Roman Society, The Journal of Classical Studies, 47(0), 179-207
- ↑ The persecutions of the first century, Early Christians, August 24, 2015
- ↑ Nero: Kaiser und Gott, Künstler und Narr, Philipp Vandenberg, Bastei Lübbe (Bastei Verlag), 2001
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 The Story of Christianity: The early church to the reformation, Justo L. González, HarperCollins Publishers, 2010
- ↑ The Decian Persecutions: Rome's First Empire-Wide Targeting of Christians, Tribunate, February 3, 2023
- ↑ The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways, Marius Heemstra, Mohr Siebeck, 2010
- ↑ Five Good Emperors, Britannica
- ↑ Trajan, Britannica
- ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Frank McLynn, Hachette Books, 2009
- ↑ Marcus Aurelius, Britannica
- ↑ Dominion, Tom Holland, Basic Books, 2019
- ↑ So lebten die römischen Kaiser, Ivar Lissner, Kaiser, 1981
- ↑ Bernard P. Grenfell et al., The Oxyrhynchus papyri, Vol. 4, Egypt Exploration Fund, 1898, pp. 49-50
- ↑ The Imperial Roman Government Issues Certificates of Conformation to Pagan Religious Practice, History of Information
- ↑ Reorganization of the empire of Diocletian, Britannica
- ↑ Eusebius on Diocletian, University of Richmond
- ↑ Philip Schaff et al., “Church History of Eusebius,” Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II, Vol. 1, Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890, "Book VIII, Chapter 6, 9
- ↑ Definition of contrado, The Latin Lexicon