Pharaoh

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Pharaoh was the common title used for the kings of ancient Egypt. As the supreme ruler, the pharaoh held both political and religious authority and was even regarded as a divine being.

Egypt, located to the south of Israel, frequently appears throughout biblical history. In the Bible, the ruler of Egypt is sometimes referred to simply as “Pharaoh,”[1] and at other times as “Pharaoh king of Egypt,” combining the title with the descriptive phrase “king of Egypt.”[2] In some passages, the title appears together with a specific name—for example, “Pharaoh Neco.”[3] Altogether, five Pharaohs are mentioned by name in the Bible: Shishak, So, Tirhakah, Neco, and Hophra.

Etymology

Egyptian hieroglyph pr-’o

The word pharaoh originates from the ancient Egyptian hieroglyph pr-’o,[4] which literally meant “great house” or “palace.” Initially, the term referred to the royal palace itself—the residence of the king of Egypt. However, beginning around the middle of the 18th Dynasty (c. 1450 BC), pr-’o came to be used as a designation for the monarch personally. By the 22nd Dynasty (945–720 BC), it had become an official royal title, used together with the ruler’s name.[5] The Hebrew rendering of pr-’o was par‘oh (פַּרְעֹה‎),[6] which was later transliterated into Greek as pharaō (Φαραώ).[7] This Greek form gave rise to the English word pharaoh. After Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great around 332 BC, the use of the title gradually declined.

Role

Political Leader

Around 3150 BC, Menes unified Upper Egypt—the region stretching from the Nile Delta to Nubia—and Lower Egypt, which encompassed the Nile Delta from south of Cairo to the Mediterranean Sea. This unification marked the beginning of Egypt’s First Dynasty, and from that time the ruler of Egypt was given the title “Lord of the Two Lands.” As the supreme political authority, the pharaoh owned all the land of Egypt and held absolute power to enact laws, levy and redistribute taxes, and oversee foreign diplomacy. The pharaoh also regulated trade and economic activities, directed agricultural labor, and commissioned large-scale public works, such as temples, monuments, and irrigation systems.

Religious Leader

The pharaoh also held the title of “High Priest of Every Temple.” He acted as the chief officiant in religious ceremonies, determined the sites of temples, and ordered their construction. As the supreme religious leader, he also possessed the authority to command the military and to wage wars, either to defend the nation or to secure essential resources. This was because warfare was considered a form of sacrificial offering to Ma’at, the goddess of balance and justice (the daughter of the sun god Ra), and to Horus,[8] the god who restores order.[9]

Deification

Five-name titulary of Senusret I of the 12th Dynasty
The Horus name of Roman Emperor Tiberius recorded in hieroglyphs[10]

The ancient Egyptians believed that their ruler was either the incarnation of a god or the son of a god. Among their principal deities, Horus was regarded as the guardian god of both Egypt and the pharaoh, and also symbolized the pharaoh himself.[11] According to Egyptian legend, Menes, the first pharaoh of the First Dynasty, inherited the throne directly from Horus. During the Second Dynasty, the sun god Ra began to be incorporated into the pharaoh’s name,[12] signifying that Ra, together with Horus, had become a divine protector of the ruler. In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh was regarded as the living incarnation of Horus and the son of the sun god Ra, worshiped as a divine being equal in stature to the sun god himself.[13] This divine identity was reflected in the pharaoh’s official titles, which clearly expressed his association with Horus and Ra. The pharaoh’s royal titulary, written in hieroglyphs, consisted of five distinct names: the Horus name, the Nebty (Two Ladies) name, the Golden Horus name, the Throne name (prenomen or coronation name), and the Son of Ra name (nomen or birth name). Among these, the Son of Ra name proclaimed the pharaoh as the “child of the sun,” while the Horus name affirmed that he was the earthly embodiment of Horus himself.
The custom of deifying the pharaoh—the supreme ruler—was later passed down to other ancient civilizations. When Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered Egypt, he declared that he had received an oracle proclaiming him to be the son of Amun-Ra, and in the Greek world, he was revered as the son of Zeus. This tradition of ruler worship continued in the Roman Empire, where the practice of emperor deification took root.[14] For instance, an inscription erected by Rome after its conquest of Egypt described Octavian (Augustus) with exalted titles such as “god, son of a god, great foreign god, Caesar Autocrator.” When the deceased Julius Caesar was officially deified, Octavian—his adopted heir—was likewise honored as the “son of a god,” after his death.[15]

Pharaoh in the Bible

In the Old Testament, five pharaohs are mentioned by name: Shishak, So, Tirhakah, Neco, and Hophra. In addition to these, several other pharaohs appear in the biblical record without their names being specified.

Pharaoh in the Bible Bible Verses Presumed Figures[16]
Pharaoh in Abraham’s time Ge 12:10–20 One pharaoh from the 11th–12th Dynasty
Pharaoh in Joseph’s time Ge 37:36–50:9 One pharaoh from the 12th Dynasty[17]
The new pharaoh who did not know Joseph Ex 1:8–22 One pharaoh from the 18th Dynasty
Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth Ex 2:1–25
Pharaoh during the Exodus Ex 5:1–15:27
Pharaoh, father of Bithiah 1 Ch 4:18 Unknown
Pharaoh who received Hadad the Edomite prince 1 Ki 11:15–22 One pharaoh from the 21st Dynasty
Pharaoh, father-in-law of Solomon 1 Ki 3:1; 7:8; 9:16–24; 11:1–20 One pharaoh from the 21st–22nd Dynasty
Shishaq 1 Ki 11:40; 14:25; 2 Ch 12:1–9 Shoshenq I of the 22nd Dynasty
So 2 Ki 17:4 Osorkon IV of the 22nd Dynasty or Tefnakht of the 24th Dynasty
Pharaoh during the time of Hezekiah 2 Ki 18:21 Shabaka of the 25th Dynasty
Tirhaqah 2 Ki 19:9–36; Isa 37:9 Taharqa of the 25th Dynasty
Necho 2 Ki 23:29–35; Jer 25:1–19; 46:2 Necho II of the 26th Dynasty
Hophra Apries Jer 37:1–11; 44:30; Eze 17:11–17; 29:1–3 Wahibre of the 26th Dynasty

Abraham’s Time

The pharaoh sends Sarah back to Abraham.

In Genesis 12, Abraham and his wife Sarah went down to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan. Fearing that the Egyptians might kill him to take his beautiful wife, Abraham told them that Sarah was his sister. The pharaoh of Egypt, believing this, took Sarah into his palace and gave Abraham many gifts in return. However, God afflicted the pharaoh and his household with plagues because of Sarah. When the pharaoh discovered that she was actually Abraham’s wife, he rebuked Abraham and returned Sarah to him, sending them away from Egypt unharmed.[18]

Joseph’s Time

Joseph receives the pharaoh’s ring.

While Joseph was living in Egypt as a slave, the pharaoh had two troubling dreams: in the first, seven healthy cows were devoured by seven thin and gaunt cows; in the second, seven withered heads of grain consumed seven full and good heads of grain. On the recommendation of the chief cupbearer, the pharaoh summoned Joseph to interpret the dreams. Joseph explained that the two dreams carried the same message—they foretold seven years of abundance followed by seven years of severe famine. Deeply impressed by Joseph’s wisdom, the pharaoh appointed him as prime minister. During the seven years of plenty, Joseph stored large quantities of grain throughout the cities of Egypt in preparation for the coming famine.[19] When the famine struck, Jacob’s entire family relocated to Goshen in Egypt, where they found refuge.[20]

If the date of Israel’s migration to Egypt is placed in the 19th century BC, the pharaoh of Joseph’s time is generally thought to have been one of the rulers of the 12th Dynasty, under whom Egypt’s Middle Kingdom reached its height of prosperity.

Israel’s Sojourn in Egypt

The New Pharaoh Who Did Not Know Joseph

As the Israelites multiplied in Egypt, a new pharaoh arose—one “who did not know Joseph.” Fearing that the growing Israelite population might one day turn against Egypt, he enslaved them and forced them into harsh labor, compelling them to build the store cities of Pithom and Rameses.[21] In the New Testament, the book of Acts also mentions this ruler, referring to him as “a new king who did not know Joseph.”[22]

Pharaoh at the Time of Moses’ Birth

Pharaoh’s Daughter Rescues Moses

When the Israelite population continued to grow despite their enslavement, the pharaoh issued a cruel decree that all newborn Hebrew boys be put to death.[23] To save her child, Jochebed, the mother of Moses, placed him in a papyrus basket and hid it among the reeds along the Nile River. Pharaoh’s daughter discovered the basket, took pity on the infant, and adopted him as her own son. This pharaoh is also mentioned in the New Testament book of Hebrews.[24] Moses was raised in the royal palace. When he saw an Israelite being beaten by an Egyptian taskmaster, he killed the Egyptian in anger. When the pharaoh learned of this, he sought to have Moses executed, but Moses fled to Midian to escape. Years later, the pharaoh who had sought Moses’ life died, and a new pharaoh ascended the throne.[25]

Pharaoh During the Exodus

Moses and Aaron ask Pharaoh to let the Israelites go.

Following God’s command, Moses returned to Egypt and stood before the new pharaoh, demanding that he release the Israelites from bondage. When the pharaoh stubbornly refused, God sent ten plagues upon Egypt. Each time a plague struck, Pharaoh relented and promised to let the Israelites go, but once the plague was lifted, he hardened his heart and broke his promise. Only after the tenth and final plague—the death of every firstborn in Egypt—did Pharaoh, stricken by the loss of his own son, finally permit the Israelites to leave. Yet even then, he soon changed his mind once more, pursuing them with his army as they fled. At the Red Sea, God miraculously parted the waters for the Israelites to cross on dry ground, then closed them over the Egyptian army, drowning the pharaoh’s chariots and soldiers.[26] This pharaoh is mentioned in the New Testament (Romans 9), which quotes Exodus 9, emphasizing God’s purpose in raising the pharaoh up to demonstrate His power and proclaim His name throughout the earth.[24][27]

If the Exodus is dated to the 15th century BC, the pharaohs who reigned during Israel’s captivity and the Exodus are generally identified as rulers of Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, during the early New Kingdom period (16th–15th centuries BC).

Bithia’s Father, Pharaoh

In 1 Chronicles, Bithia, the daughter of Pharaoh,[28] is mentioned as the wife of Mered from the tribe of Judah. Her name, Bithia, means “daughter of the LORD.”[29] However, since the Bible provides no further details about Bithia or Mered, scholars conclude that it is impossible to determine which pharaoh was her father.[30]

The United Kingdom of Israel

Pharaoh Welcomes Hadad

Earlier when David was fighting with Edom, Joab the commander of the army . . . had struck down all the men in Edom . . . But Hadad, still only a boy . . . they went to Egypt, to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who gave Hadad a house and land and provided him with food. Pharaoh was so pleased with Hadad that he gave him a sister of his own wife, Queen Tahpenes, in marriage . . . While he was in Egypt, Hadad heard that David rested with his fathers and that Joab the commander of the army was also dead. Then Hadad said to Pharaoh, “Let me go, that I may return to my own country.” “What have you lacked here that you want to go back to your own country?” Pharaoh asked.

1 Kings 11:15–22


When King David sent his army commander Joab to wage war against Edom, all the men of Edom were slain. During this time, Hadad, a young Edomite prince, fled to Egypt for refuge. The pharaoh received him kindly, granting him land and arranging his marriage to the pharaoh’s sister-in-law. This pharaoh is generally believed to have been one of the rulers of Egypt’s 21st Dynasty—possibly Amenemope, Siamun, or Psusennes II.[5]

Pharaoh, the Father-in-law of Solomon

(Pharaoh king of Egypt had attacked and captured Gezer. He had set it on fire. He killed its Canaanite inhabitants and then gave it as a wedding gift to his daughter, Solomon's wife. And Solomon rebuilt Gezer.) He built up Lower Beth Horon.

1 Kings 9:16–17


The pharaoh who invaded Gezer later gave his daughter in marriage to King Solomon, presenting the conquered city of Gezer to her as a dowry. Solomon subsequently rebuilt the city. Throughout the book of 1 Kings, Pharaoh’s daughter, Solomon’s wife, is mentioned multiple times, highlighting the political alliance between Egypt and Israel during Solomon’s reign.[31]

Pharaoh Shishak

Pharaoh Shishak is identified as Shoshenq I, the first king of Egypt’s 22nd Dynasty. In the Bible, he is referred to simply as the “king of Egypt” rather than by the title Pharaoh. His reign coincided with the final years of Solomon’s rule and the early period following the division of the united kingdom of Israel into Judah and Israel.


Solomon tried to kill Jeroboam, but Jeroboam fled to Egypt, to Shishak the king, and stayed there until Solomon’s death.

1 Kings 11:40


Jeroboam, one of Solomon’s servants, received a prophecy that the kingdom would be divided because of Solomon’s idolatry and that he would become ruler over ten of Israel’s tribes.[32] When Solomon heard of this prophecy, he sought to kill Jeroboam. To escape, Jeroboam fled to Egypt, where Shishak was king. After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam returned to Israel and became the first king of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Pharaoh Shishak plunders the temple in Jerusalem.

Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem in the fifth year of King Rehoboam . . . “This is what the LORD says, ‘You have abandoned me; therefore, I now abandon you to Shishak.’ “. . . When Shishak king of Egypt attacked Jerusalem, he carried off the treasures of the temple of the LORD and the treasures of the royal palace. He took everything, including the gold shields Solomon had made.

2 Chronicles 12:2–9


When Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, fell into idolatry, God allowed Pharaoh Shishak to rise against him. Shishak led a vast army against Judah, consisting of 1,200 chariots, 60,000 horsemen, and countless mercenaries from Libya, Ethiopia, and other surrounding regions. The prophet Shemaiah proclaimed that this invasion had come upon Judah because they had sinned against God. Shishak captured several fortified cities of Judah and advanced on Jerusalem, where he plundered the treasures of both the temple of the LORD and the royal palace, taking away the wealth that Solomon had accumulated.

The Late Northern Kingdom of Israel

Pharaoh So

Shalmaneser king of Assyria came up to attack Hosea, who had been Shalmaneser’s vassal and had paid him tribute. But the king of Assyria discovered that Hosea was a traitor, for he had sent envoys to So king of Egypt, and he no longer paid tribute to the king of Assyria, as he had done year by year. Therefore Shalmaneser seized him and put him in prison.

2 Kings 17:3–4


King Hosea of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, who had been paying tribute to Assyria, rebelled against his overlord and sought military assistance from Pharaoh So of Egypt. In response, King Shalmaneser V of Assyria marched against Israel once more and besieged Samaria for three years. In the ninth year of Hosea’s reign (c. 721 BC), Samaria fell, marking the collapse of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

At the end of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Egypt was in the Third Intermediate Period, during which several dynasties ruled simultaneously in different regions.[33] Because no pharaoh is actually known to have borne the name “So,” his exact identity remains uncertain. Some scholars propose that “So” was an abbreviation of Osorkon IV, the last pharaoh of the 22nd Dynasty (reigned c. 730–715 BC), whose rule overlapped with that of King Hosea.[34] However, more recent research suggests that “So” was not a personal name at all, but rather a reference to Sais, the capital city of Pharaoh Tefnakht of the 24th Dynasty. According to this interpretation, Hosea sought military assistance from Tefnakht in Sais, not from a Pharaoh actually named So.[35]

Pharaoh in the Time of Hezekiah

After Shalmaneser conquered the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Sennacherib, the new king of Assyria, advanced south to attack both Judah and Egypt. During this time, Hezekiah was king of Judah. Though Hezekiah attempted to appease Sennacherib by giving him all the gold and silver from the temple of the LORD, the Assyrian king refused to withdraw. Instead, Sennacherib sent his commander, Rabshakeh,[36] to Jerusalem. Standing along one of the city’s main roads, Rabshakeh mocked and threatened Hezekiah, warning him that reliance on “Pharaoh, king of Egypt”—whom he compared to a “splintered reed of a staff”—would bring only ruin.[37]

At that time, Egypt was ruled by Shabaka of the 25th Dynasty, following the fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Therefore, the pharaoh referred to by Rabshakeh is generally identified as Shabaka.[38]

Pharaoh Tirhakah

Pharaoh Tirhakah corresponds to Taharqa, a ruler of Egypt’s 25th Dynasty, which had been established by the Nubians. In the Bible, he is referred to as “Tirhakah, king of Cush.” The ancient kingdom of Cush—also known as Nubia—was located in the region of present-day Ethiopia. At the time when Tirhakah fought against Assyria, he had not yet become the pharaoh of Egypt but was still reigning as king of Cush; therefore, the biblical account does not use the title Pharaoh for him.[39] Later, after defeating and killing Pharaoh Shabaka, Tirhakah ascended to the Egyptian throne and ruled as Pharaoh.


Now Sennacherib received a report that Tirhakah, the Cushite king of Egypt, was marching out to fight against him. So he again sent messengers to Hezekiah with this word: “Say to Hezekiah king of Judah: Do not let the god you depend on deceive you when he says, ‘Jerusalem will not be handed over to the king of Assyria.’ ”

2 Kings 19:9–10


When King Hezekiah sought military assistance from the pharaoh—believed to have been Shabaka—the pharaoh dispatched his brother Tirhakah to lead an army toward Judah. Upon hearing of this, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, hastened to capture Jerusalem before the Egyptian forces could arrive. He once again sent his commander Rabshakeh to intimidate and threaten Hezekiah. However, God intervened, sending an angel, who struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers in a single night. Overwhelmed by the loss, Sennacherib was forced to abandon his campaign, returning to his capital city of Nineveh, unable to conquer Jerusalem.[40]

The Late Period of South Judah

Pharaoh Necho

Pharaoh Necho refers to Necho II, the second king of Egypt’s 26th Dynasty (reigned c. 609–594 BC). He ascended the throne around 609 BC, three years after the fall of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. Seeking to assert Egyptian dominance over the Euphrates region before the rising power of Babylon—under King Nabopolassar and Crown Prince Nebuchadnezzar—became too strong, Necho launched a series of military campaigns shortly after taking the throne. During these campaigns, he captured the Philistine cities of Gaza and Ashkelon, bringing much of Palestine under Egyptian control.[41]

King Josiah killed at the Battle of Megiddo

Neco king of Egypt went up to fight at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and Josiah marched out to meet him in battle. But Neco sent messengers to him, saying, “. . . It is not you I am attacking at this time, but the house with which I am at war. . . .” Josiah, however, would not turn away from him . . . but went to fight him on the plain of Megiddo . . . he died. He was buried in the tombs of his fathers.

2 Chronicles 35:20–24


After his campaign against the Philistines, Pharaoh Necho marched north with the goal of capturing Harran, one of Assyria’s remaining key strongholds. At that time, King Josiah of Judah attempted to block the Egyptian advance at Megiddo, but he was killed in battle. Following his victory at Megiddo, Necho captured Jehoahaz, Josiah’s successor, and imprisoned him at Riblah, a village in present-day Syria near the Lebanese border. He then imposed a heavy tribute on Judah and appointed Jehoiakim, another of Josiah’s sons, as king in Jehoahaz’s place. Continuing his northern campaign, Necho, allied with the remaining Assyrian forces, attempted to retake Harran but was unsuccessful. He subsequently stationed his army at Carchemish, a strategic city on the middle Euphrates River, from where he exercised control over the territories west of the Euphrates—lands formerly belonging to the Assyrian Empire—and received tribute from Jehoiakim of Judah.[42]

The Battle of Carchemish

This is the message against the army of Pharaoh Neco king of Egypt, which was defeated at Carchemish on the Euphrates River by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon in the fourth year of Jehoiakim . . . about the coming of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon to attack Egypt . . . “I am about to bring punishment on . . . Pharaoh . . . and on those who rely on Pharaoh. I will hand them over to those who seek their lives, to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon and his officers. Later, however, Egypt will be inhabited as in times past,”

Jeremiah 46:2–26


Around 605 BC, the Babylonian army led by Nebuchadnezzar confronted the Egyptian forces of Pharaoh Necho II in the Battle of Carchemish. Necho’s army suffered a decisive defeat, and when he later attempted to regroup and fight again at Hamath, he was defeated once more. These losses marked the end of Egypt’s dominance in the Palestine region.[43]

Pharaoh Hophra

Pharaoh Hophra—known historically as Wahibre (Apries)—was the fourth king of Egypt’s 26th Dynasty (reigned 589–570 BC). Even before his reign, Egypt had been encouraging and supporting the nations of the Palestine region, including Judah, to rebel against Babylonian rule.[44] Trusting in Egypt’s promise of assistance, King Zedekiah of Judah rebelled against Babylon and appealed to Pharaoh Hophra for military support.[45][46]


Pharaoh’s army had marched out of Egypt, and when the Babylonians who were besieging Jerusalem heard the report about them, they withdrew from Jerusalem. Then the word of the LORD came to Jeremiah the prophet: “. . . Tell the king of Judah . . . ‘Pharaoh’s army, which has marched out to support you, will go back to its own land, to Egypt. Then the Babylonians will return and attack this city; they will capture it and burn it down.’ ”

Jeremiah 37:5–8


At that time, Hophra had ascended the throne of Egypt. When Babylon laid siege to Jerusalem, Pharaoh Hophra sent his army to intervene, causing the Babylonians to temporarily lift the siege. However, just as the prophet Jeremiah had foretold, once the Egyptian forces withdrew, the Babylonian army returned, besieged the city again, and ultimately captured Jerusalem around 586 BC.[47] After the fall of Judah, Pharaoh Hophra allowed Judean refugees to settle in Egypt. During this period, Johanan and his companions disobeyed God’s command not to flee to Egypt.[48] They took with them not only the prophet Jeremiah but also the remaining Jews who had planned to stay in Judah, and brought them to Tahpanhes (an Egyptian border city), where they settled.[49]


“This is what the LORD says: ‘I am going to hand Pharaoh Hophra king of Egypt over to his enemies who seek his life, just as I handed Zedekiah king of Judah over to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, the enemy who was seeking his life.’ ”

Jeremiah 44:30


The Bible contains a prophecy that, just as King Zedekiah of Judah was handed over to his enemies by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, so too would Pharaoh Hophra be delivered into the hands of his foes. In the later years of his reign, Hophra led a military campaign to support Libya, but he was defeated. After suffering a series of setbacks in wars intended to aid Egypt’s allies, discontent grew among his own troops. The Egyptian army, rallying under General Amasis, rebelled against him. Defeated in the ensuing civil war, Hophra fled into exile in a foreign land. Later, with Babylonian support, he attempted to return to Egypt, but he clashed with Amasis’s forces and was ultimately killed in battle around 570 BC.[50]

See also

External links

  • Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2003
  • Emil G. Hirsch et al., “Pharaoh,” Jewish Encyclopedia

References

  1. ↑ Genesis 12:15, Exodus 1:11
  2. ↑ Genesis 41:46, Deuteronomy 7:8
  3. ↑ 2 Kings 23:29
  4. ↑ Since ancient Egyptian (hieroglyphs) did not record vowels, it is presumed that "pr-‘o" was pronounced as "pero" (pharaoh), or alternatively as "per-a-a" or "Per’a".
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Pharaoh, Britannica
  6. ↑ Strong's Hebrew: 6547. פַּרְעֹה, Bible Hub
  7. ↑ Greek Concordance: Φαραὼ, Bible Hub
  8. ↑ He is the son of Osiris, the first ruler of Egypt and a divine king. Horus is known as the god of the earth and the restorer of order.
  9. ↑ Pharaoh, World History Encyclopedia
  10. ↑ Tiberius, pharaoh.se
  11. ↑ Horus, World History Encyclopedia
  12. ↑ Raneb, the second pharaoh of Egypt’s Second Dynasty
  13. ↑ BORN OF THE GODS, NGV
  14. ↑ Howard F. Burton, "The Worship of the Roman," The Biblical World, Vol. 40(2), 1912, pp.80-81
  15. ↑ The Births of Augustus and Jesus, Next Step Bible Study
  16. ↑ According to 1 Kings 6:12, the completion of Solomon’s temple in the 11th century BC took place 480 years after the Exodus. Therefore, the Exodus is estimated to have occurred in the 15th century BC. This article bases its timeline of the Exodus on the assumption that it took place in the 15th century BC.
  17. ↑ According to Exodus 12:40, the descendants of Jacob lived in the land of Egypt, specifically in Goshen, for about 400 years, during which they were subjected to slavery. Based on this, Jacob’s family is believed to have migrated to Egypt around the 19th century BC.
  18. ↑ "Genesis 12:10–20".
  19. ↑ Genesis 41장
  20. ↑ "Genesis 46:26–27".
  21. ↑ "Exodus 1:6–11".
  22. ↑ "Acts 7:17–18".
  23. ↑ "Exodus 1:12–22".
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Exodus 9:16".
  25. ↑ Exodus 2장
  26. ↑ Exodus 14장
  27. ↑ "Romans 9:17".
  28. ↑ "1 Chronicles 4:18".
  29. ↑ Bithiah, Nameberry
  30. ↑ Pharaoh, Jewish Encyclopedia
  31. ↑ 1 Kings 3:1, 1 Kings 7:8, 1 Kings 9:16–24, 1 Kings 11:1–20
  32. ↑ "1 Kings 11:30–33".
  33. ↑ The period from around 1069 to 664 BC is characterized by the simultaneous emergence of the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th dynasties, during which Egypt was fragmented into several minor kingdoms and city-states.
  34. ↑ William F. Albright, “Further Synchronisms between Egypt and Asia in the Period 935-685 BC,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 44(1), University of Chicago, 1956, pp.23-27
  35. ↑ Mavin Alan Sweeney, I & II Kings: A Commentary, Westminster John Knox Press, 2007, p.393
  36. ↑ Some scholars believe that "Rabshakeh" was not a personal name, but rather a title or official position, referring to the chief officer in charge of the royal wine service in ancient Mesopotamia.
  37. ↑ "2 Kings 18:21".
  38. ↑ Shabaka, Britannica
  39. ↑ Tirhakah, BiblicalTraning.org
  40. ↑ "2 Kings 19:35–36".
  41. ↑ "Jeremiah 47:1–5".
  42. ↑ "2 Kings 23:33–35".
  43. ↑ "2 Kings 24:7".
  44. ↑ Egypt’s Role in the Geopolitics of Israel/Judah During the Time of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, Sign of the Rose
  45. ↑ "2 Kings 24:20".
  46. ↑ "Ezekiel 17:15–17".
  47. ↑ "Jeremiah 39:1–2".
  48. ↑ "Jeremiah 42:7–22".
  49. ↑ "Jeremiah 43:4–11".
  50. ↑ Hophra: An Archaeological Biography, Bible Archaeology Report
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