Arianism

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Arianism (Greek: Ἀρειανισμός, Areianismós) is a Christian theological doctrine first proposed in the early 4th century by Arius (Latin: Arius; Greek: Άρειος, c. 250–336), a presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt. Arianism teaches that Christ is a created being—not fully divine or fully human—but rather a “secondary god,” subordinate to God the Father. This view was declared one of the major heresies of early Christianity.

At the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the church issued the Nicene Creed, formally condemning Arianism and affirming that Christ is of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father. However, this marked only the beginning of a long theological conflict, which was not conclusively resolved until the First Council of Constantinople in 381.

Arius

The Beginning of Arianism

Arianism was proposed by Arius, a presbyter from Alexandria, who was renowned for his eloquence and gained considerable popularity among the people.[1] When he opposed the belief that the Father and the Son are equal in divinity, asserting instead that “the Father and the Son are different,” Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, excommunicated him. Expelled from Alexandria, Arius traveled through various regions in the East, persuading several bishops to support his view. To spread his doctrine more effectively, he composed it in verse form, making it easy for ordinary people to memorize and recite.[2]

At the First Council of Nicaea in 325, convened by Emperor Constantine I, Arius was condemned as a heretic and excommunicated. However, with the support of Constantia, Constantine’s influential half-sister, he was soon reinstated in the church. In 336, while walking through the streets of Constantinople, Arius suddenly died from a ruptured hernia.[3]

Denial of the Divinity of Christ

Arianism is the doctrine that Jesus Christ is not God, but a creation made by God. Arius based his argument on the premise of the “uniqueness of God,” who alone exists by Himself and is unchangeable. In contrast, Arius claimed that the Son is a created being who has a beginning, cannot exist independently, and is subject to growth and change—therefore, He cannot be eternal or divine.

This teaching stands in direct contradiction to the Bible, which clearly testifies that the Father and the Son are one and the same God.

The main points of Arius’s claims are as follows:

  • Christ is the Logos (Greek: λόγος, meaning “Word”) who took on a human body.[4]
  • Christ is subject to change and capable of suffering.
  • Therefore, the Logos is changeable and not equal to God.

Arian Controversy

Council of Nicaea: Condemnation of Arianism

Illustration from European in the Dark Ages, 1969: At the Council of Nicaea, Arianism was condemned as heresy, and Arius’s writings were burned.

In 325, Emperor Constantine I convened the Council of Nicaea to resolve the Arian controversy. Among those who opposed Arianism, Athanasius[5] of Alexandria was the most fervent defender of orthodox doctrine. He argued that Arianism reduced the Son to a mere demigod and undermined the foundation of Christian redemption, for only the Son—who is truly God—can reconcile humanity with God.

The Council of Nicaea issued the Nicene Creed, declaring that “the Son is of the same essence” (Greek: ὁμοούσιος, homoousios) as the Father, affirming that the Son is fully God and not different in nature from the Father. As a result, Arianism was condemned as heresy, and Arius and his followers were excommunicated and banished.[6]

For details, refer to: Council of Nicaea

Arianism and the Roman Emperor

Constantine’s Acceptance of Arius

Less than three years after the Council of Nicaea, Emperor Constantine I revoked the decree of exile against Arius.[7] Arius was treated as though he had been unjustly persecuted, and the bishops who had been excommunicated with him were also restored to the church. They, in turn, accused their opponents of immorality or of dishonoring Helena, Constantine’s mother.[8] Even Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria and a leading defender of Nicene orthodoxy, was not spared from their attacks. He was falsely accused of threatening to block the grain supply from Egypt to Rome and was consequently sent into exile.[9]

In 335, Arianism received official approval at a church council. After Arius’s death in 336, his followers continued to promote his doctrine and extend their influence. The following year, in 337, Constantine I died—having been baptized shortly before his death by Eusebius, an Arian bishop.[10]

Constantius Supported Arianism

A bust presumed to be Constantius II. He supported Arianism.

After the death of Emperor Constantine I, the Roman Empire was divided among his three sons. Constantine II (Flavius Claudius Constantinus, reigned 337–340) governed the West; Constans (Flavius Julius Constans, reigned 337–350) ruled the central regions; and Constantius II (Flavius Julius Constantius, reigned 337–361) controlled the East. While Constantine II and Constans supported the Nicene Creed, Constantius II took a different stance. Ruling in the East, where Arianism held considerable influence, he became one of its chief defenders. Under his rule, Eusebius, an Arian, was appointed bishop of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire—deepening the rift between the Eastern and Western churches.[11]

When Constantine II died in 340, the West came under the control of Constans. Ten years later, in 350, Constans was assassinated, and Constantius II emerged as the sole ruler of the empire after suppressing internal turmoil. Constantius pursued a pro-Arian policy, compelling all bishops to accept Arian doctrine—which claimed that “the Son is not like the Father”—and exiling those who refused. Athanasius, the most prominent opponent of Arianism, was again forced to flee under Constantius’ persecution.[12] Even Liberius, the bishop of Rome, was coerced by the emperor to sign a decree nullifying the Nicene Creed.[13]

Julian the Apostate

In 360, the Roman army stationed in Paris revolted against Constantius II and proclaimed their commander, Julian (Flavius Claudius Julianus, reigned 361–363), as emperor. Before the armies of Constantius and Julian could meet in battle, Constantius fell ill and died, and in 361, Julian became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Upon ascending the throne, he publicly renounced Christianity and embraced paganism, declaring himself the head of the revived pagan religion. Because of this, history remembers him as “Julian the Apostate.”[14]

Julian, a nephew of Constantine the Great, was educated in Greece, where he came under the influence of Neoplatonism and embraced the worship of the “Immortal Sun.” Although he proclaimed freedom of religion for all faiths, his true intention was to revive paganism and restore it to the status of an official religion of the empire.

Julian actively promoted pagan worship—offering animal sacrifices to the gods, upholding pagan orthodoxy, and issuing doctrinal instructions to priests under his authority. He also reinstated bishops of the Nicene faith who had been exiled by Constantius II, deliberately provoking conflict between Arian bishops and those who upheld the Nicene Creed.[15]

Valens, the Fervent Arian Emperor

After Julian's death in the second year of his reign, his successor Jovian (Latin: Flavius Claudius Jovianus, reigned 363–364) also died suddenly. Following his death, Valentinian I (Latin: Flavius Valentinianus, reigned 364–375), who pursued a policy of religious neutrality, ruled the Western Empire, while Valens (reigned 364–378), a fervent adherent of Arianism, ruled the Eastern Empire. Under Valens, Arianism grew strong in the Eastern Empire. Valens persecuted the Nicene believers and exiled the bishops who upheld the Nicene Creed.

The Council of Constantinople: The Condemnation of Arianism

The First Council of Constantinople, which prohibited Arianism, unknown artist, 879–883

In 378, Emperor Valens was killed in battle, bringing an end to his reign and to Arian dominance in the East. The Eastern Roman Empire then came under the authority of the Western Emperor Gratian (Flavius Gratianus, reigned 375–383). Gratian restored the Eastern bishops who had been exiled during Valens’s persecution and appointed Theodosius I (Flavius Theodosius, reigned 379–395), the commander-in-chief of the army, as his successor in the East.
Theodosius I was a devout Christian who firmly upheld the Nicene faith. In 380, he issued an edict requiring all his subjects to adhere to a single creed affirming the Trinity, recognizing only those who believed in the Triune God as Catholic Christians (from the Greek καθολικός [katholikós],[16] meaning “universal”).

The creed established in 380 was further defined and officially confirmed at the First Council of Constantinople, convened by Theodosius in 381. This creed, known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, was essentially a revised version of the 325 Nicene Creed, which had not yet fully defined the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

In 391, Theodosius prohibited pagan sacrifices and temple worship, and in 392, he enforced the ban even more strictly, completely abolishing all forms of pagan worship within the empire.[17]

  • The Nicene Creed of 325 and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381
The Nicene Creed of 325 [18] The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father [the only-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God,] Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father;

By whom all things were made [both in heaven and on earth];

Who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man;

He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven;

From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.

And in the Holy Ghost.

[But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or 'changeable,' or 'alterable'— they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.]

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons), Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father;

by whom all things were made;

who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man;

he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried, and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father;

from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;

whose kingdom shall have no end.

And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets.

In one holy catholic and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.

Arianism Among the Germanic Peoples

Ulfilas Spread Arianism

Woodcut illustration from Bildersaal Deutscher Geschichte, 1890: Ulfilas spread Arianism among the Goths.

After the First Council of Constantinople, Arianism disappeared from within the Roman Empire but continued to survive among the Germanic peoples.[19] Originally inhabiting the Baltic coast and the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Germanic tribes lived agricultural, pastoral, and hunting lifestyles. However, as their populations grew and land became scarce, they migrated southward, eventually settling near the frontiers of the Roman Empire.

In the late 4th century, the Germanic tribes living along the Black Sea were driven into Roman territory by the westward advance of the Huns. This movement marked the beginning of the Great Migration of the Germanic peoples.[20][21] During this period, tribes such as the Goths (both Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Lombards, Franks, Alamanni, Burgundians, Suebi, and Heruli established various kingdoms within Roman lands.

As a result, the Western Roman Empire gradually declined and ultimately fell in 476, when Odoacer, a Germanic mercenary leader, deposed the last emperor and seized control of Italy.[22]

Christian leaders who had been taken captive by the Germanic peoples preached the gospel among them, and some even volunteered as missionaries. Alongside these efforts, Arian missionaries also spread their doctrine. The spread of Arianism among the Germanic tribes began with the Goths in the mid–4th century. During the reign of Constantius II, a supporter of Arianism, nearly the entire Gothic population was converted to Arian Christianity through the missionary work of Ulfilas, a Visigothic bishop and devoted adherent of Arianism.[23]

With the exception of the Franks, most of the Germanic tribes embraced Arian Christianity, which had been condemned as heresy by the Roman Catholic Church. This doctrinal divide made it difficult for the Germanic peoples to harmonize with the Romans, who adhered to Catholicism.[24]

The Franks Converted to Roman Catholicism

The Baptism of Clovis, Master of Saint Giles, around 1500: King Clovis of the Franks received baptism after converting to Roman Catholicism.

While Arianism was flourishing among the Germanic tribes that had taken over the Western Roman Empire, the Franks continued to practice their traditional pagan religion. The conversion of the Franks to Roman Catholicism took place during the reign of Clovis I (Latin: Chlodovechus I, reigned 481–511). It is recorded that Clovis embraced Catholic Christianity and was baptized after his victory over the Alemanni at the Battle of Tolbiac (Tolbiacum) around 496.[25]

After Clovis’ conversion, the widespread adoption of Roman Catholicism among the Franks fostered their unification as a single nation. Unlike other Germanic tribes that followed Arianism, the Franks gained the support of the Roman Catholic clergy and the remaining Roman population in Gaul. By assisting the papacy, which was struggling against the Lombard invasions, the Franks formed a close alliance with the Roman Church. In return for the Church’s support in establishing the Carolingian dynasty, the Franks seized territories in central Italy from the Lombards and granted them to the pope, thereby laying the foundation for the Papal States.[26]

As a result, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful Christian nation in Western Europe. By the early 8th century, it had surpassed the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and established itself as the dominant power in Europe.[27]

The Fall of Arian Kingdoms

Germanic tribes adhering to Arianism (in orange) and the Eastern Roman Empire following the Nicene Creed (in green), around 495

When the Western Catholic Church was under the uneasy rule of the Arian Germanic tribes, Justinian I (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, reigned 527–565) ascended the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire, which upheld the Catholic faith, in 527. Justinian was ambitious to reunite the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, believing even before his accession that the unification of the divided Churches would lead to the restoration of a single Roman Empire. In 519, when a papal delegation visited Constantinople, Justinian—then serving as minister of the interior and nephew of Emperor Justin I (Flavius Justinus, reigned 518–527)—agreed to the excommunication of Eastern bishops whom the Roman Catholic Church had condemned as heretics.[28]

After becoming emperor, he formally recognized the Pope of Rome as the head of the Church and sought to eliminate Arianism and paganism, both of which were regarded as heresies by the Catholic Church.[29] In 534, Justinian defeated the Vandals, who had persecuted Catholics in North Africa, thereby restoring Roman Catholicism in the region.[30] The following year, in 535, he declared war on the Ostrogoths,[31] and after their defeat in Rome in 538, the Ostrogoths never recovered and eventually fell into decline. As the Vandals and Ostrogoths—both adherents of Arianism—collapsed, other Germanic tribes gradually abandoned Arianism and converted to the Roman Catholic faith.[32]

Arianism in the Modern Era

Although Arian Christianity eventually disappeared from history, teachings that deny the equality of the Father and the Son continued to arise in later generations. For example, Unitarian Christianity maintains that there is only one God and rejects both the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ. In the 19th century, the religious group known as the Jehovah’s Witnesses taught that Jesus was the first created being and therefore not eternal. Such beliefs can be viewed as modern expressions of Arianism.[33]

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ Rector, Rebecca Kraft, MLS, Arius (Christian ascetic), EBSCO, 2024
  2. ↑ Valentine Long, Arius and the Council of Nicaea, EWTN
  3. ↑ Philip Schaff, Chapter XXXVIII. The Death of Arius, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, Volume 2, Christian Classics Ethereal Library
  4. ↑ "John 1:1-14".
  5. ↑ He was a deacon at the time of the Council of Nicaea, but later succeeded Alexander as the bishop of the Church of Alexandria.
  6. ↑ J. L. VON MOSHEIM A. P. STANLEY JOHN ALZOG, First Nicene Council Rise and Decline of Arianism, Original Sources
  7. ↑ Andries van Niekerk, Constantine ensured that Nicaea concluded what he thought best, From Daniel to Revelation, May 12, 2024
  8. ↑ Eusebius of Nicomedia, Britannica
  9. ↑ St. Athanasius, Britannica
  10. ↑ Gibbon, Edward, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Chapter 21
  11. ↑ Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, Vol. III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity A.D. 311-600. Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Chapter I, Sections on Constantine's death and baptism
  12. ↑ Constantius II, Britannica
  13. ↑ Liberius, Britannica
  14. ↑ John Case, Julian the Apostate’s Attempt to Restore Roman Paganism, Hillsdale College, January 18, 2024
  15. ↑ Bauer, Susan Wise, The Story of the World, Volume 1: Ancient Times, Peace Hill Press
  16. ↑ Καθολικός, ΛΟΓΕΙΟΝ
  17. ↑ The middle years of Theodosius I, Britannica
  18. ↑ Drobner, Hubertus R, Fathers of the Church: A Comprehensive Introduction, Hendrickson Publishers, 2007
  19. ↑ Stephen Bedard, The Rise and Impact of Arianism: One of Early Christianity’s Defining Controversies, History of Christianity, March 22, 2025
  20. ↑ Great Migration Period, Imperium Romanum, September 12, 2021
  21. ↑ Barbarian migrations and invasions, Britannica
  22. ↑ Graetzer, Daniel G., Fall of Rome, EBSCO, 2022
  23. ↑ Goth, Britannica
  24. ↑ John, Eric, The Papacy and the Historian: Romans and Germans, Cambridge University Press, vol. 57, no. 671, April 1976, pp. 152-159
  25. ↑ The Battle of Tolbiac between the Franks and the Alamanni is traditionally dated to 496 AD. However, some historical records suggest other possible dates, such as the 480s, the early 490s, or even later, around 506 AD. It is understood that Clovis's baptism took place after his victory in the Battle of Tolbiac.
  26. ↑ Charles the Great (Charlemagne) of Italy, History Discussion
  27. ↑ Luciano Anastasi, Charlemagne: The First Emperor of Europe, Medieval History, March 28, 2023
  28. ↑ Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries, Knopf, 1988
  29. ↑ Davis, Leo Donald, The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology, Liturgical Press, 1990
  30. ↑ Vandal, Britannica
  31. ↑ Ostrogoth, Britannica
  32. ↑ Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005
  33. ↑ Arianism, Britannica
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